SCIENTIFIC AND ISLAMIC RESEARCHES

Tribes During the Life of Prophet Muhammad

During the life of Prophet Muhammad, several Arabian tribes interacted with him, each with their own unique characteristics and histories. The most prominent among these tribes included:

Quraish: This was the tribe of Muhammad himself, residing in Mecca. The Quraish were divided into several sub-clans, including Banu Hashim (Muhammad’s clan) and Banu Abd-Shams (his adversaries).

Banu Kinanah: Related to the Quraish, they were primarily located around Mecca.

Banu Thaqif: Based in Ta’if, they were known for their opposition to Muhammad initially.

Banu Ghatafan: Located east of Yathrib (Medina) and Khaibar, they were significant players in the early Islamic conflicts.

Banu Hothail: Neighbors of the Khuzaimah tribe in Mecca.

Banu Tamim: A dominant force in Central Arabia.

Jewish Tribes: Several Jewish tribes settled in Medina, including:

Banu Qurayza
Banu Nadir
Banu Qainuqa
These tribes played various roles during Muhammad’s life, from allies to adversaries.

Dialectal Variations of Arabic

The Arab tribes spoke Arabic, but their speech reflected regional and tribal variations. Arabic at the time of the Qur’an was not completely uniform and included differences in pronunciation, vocabulary, and expression across different communities.

The Quraysh dialect was particularly influential due to its central role in the Qur’an and its position in Meccan society. Other tribes, such as Banu Tamim and Banu Thaqif, had their own linguistic features, which could include variations in pronunciation and word usage.

This linguistic diversity formed part of the background for the later standardisation of the written Qur’anic text during the caliphate of Uthman ibn Affan, which aimed to unify the written form while preserving authentic recitational traditions.

In summary, during the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, various Arab tribes in the Arabian Peninsula spoke Arabic in different dialects, reflecting regional and tribal linguistic variation

A Brief History of the Quran from Revelation to Standardization and the Birth of Qira’at (Recitations)

The history of the Qur’an is a historical process that includes its revelation, preservation, compilation, standardisation, and the transmission of its modes of recitation known as qira’at. This process unfolded during the first centuries of Islamic history and involved several key stages and figures. It began with the revelation to the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, during which both the Ahruf (divinely permitted variation) and the early forms of recitation were taught and transmitted orally. This continued through the lives of the companions, followed by compilation under Abu Bakr, and major standardisation under Uthman ibn Affan. The Qira’at, which originated from these early transmitted recitations, were later systematised and documented by scholars to preserve authentic readings. Overall, this history reflects both the preservation of the Qur’anic text and the continuity of its authentic recitational tradition.

Revelation of the Quran
Revelation in Seven Ahruf (610–632 CE)
The Qur’an was revealed to Prophet Muhammad ﷺ over 23 years (610–632 CE). Authentic hadiths in Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim report that the Qur’an was revealed in ‘Seven Ahruf’, meaning seven modes or forms of recitation. The Prophet ﷺ instructed that it may be recited in any of these forms for ease. Classical scholars explain that these Ahruf accommodated linguistic variation among Arab communities, though they differ on the exact nature and classification of these modes, and they are not definitively proven to correspond to any specific tribes Each harf represented slight differences in pronunciation (lughāt), vocabulary synonyms (e.g., aqbil vs taʿāl for “come”), or grammatical structures—all divinely sanctioned. The revelations were received in various contexts, addressing specific events or issues faced by Muhammad and his followers. These revelations were initially transmitted orally and memorized by Muhammad’s companions.

Early Compilation under Abu Bakr 633-634 CE
During Muhammad’s lifetime, some verses of the Quran were written down on various materials such as parchment, bones, and palm leaves. However, there was no complete written compilation during this period. After Muhammad’s ﷺ death in 632 CE, divergent recitations risked fragmentation during wars like Yamama (633 CE), where many memorizers (huffāẓ) perished. Caliph Abu Bakr (Abd Allah ibn Abi Quhafa (Arabic: عبد الله بن أبي قحافة, romanized: ʿAbd Allāh ibn ʾAbī Quḥāfa;  573-634 C.E.), commonly known by the kunya Abu Bakr (Arabic: أبو بكر, romanized: ʾAbū Bakr), was the first caliph, ruling from 632 until his death in 634.

Abu Bakr al-Ṣiddīq (الصِّدِّيق), a close companion and the first caliph after the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, initiated the first major compilation of the Qur’an following the Battle of Yamama, during which a number of Qur’an memorizers were killed. At the request of ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb, he appointed Zayd ibn Thabit, one of the Prophet’s primary scribes, to compile the Qur’an into a collection of written sheets (ṣuḥuf). This compilation was based on both memorised recitation and written fragments recorded on available materials such as parchment and other writing surfaces. The result was a unified written collection that preserved the Qur’anic text in an early form, which later served as the basis for the standardised codices produced during the caliphate of Uthman ibn Affan.

Standardization Under Uthman (644–656 CE)
Uthman ibn Affan (Arabic: عُثْمَان بْن عَفَّان, romanized: ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān; c. 573 or 576 – 17 June 656) was the third caliph, ruling from 644 until his assassination in 656. territorial expansion led to disputes over recitations between one of the Syrian and Iraqi soldiers at Armenia/Azerbaijan campaigns (650 CE). Anas bin Malik reported “Hudhaifa was afraid of their (the people of Sham and Iraq) differences in the recitation of the Qur’an, so he said to Uthman, “O chief of the Believers! Save this nation before they differ about the Book, So Uthman sent a message to Hafsa saying, “Send us the manuscripts of the Qur’an so that we may compile the Qur’anic materials in perfect copies and return the manuscripts to you.” Hafsa sent it to Uthman who then ordered Zaid bin Thabit, Abdullah bin Az-Zubair, Said bin Al-As and `Abdur-Rahman bin Harith bin Hisham to rewrite the manuscript. During the caliphate of Uthman ibn Affan, a major standardization effort was undertaken to unify the written text of the Qur’an. To address differences in recitation and prevent اختلاف (disagreement), Uthman formed a committee led by Zayd ibn Thabit, assisted by several prominent companions, to produce official copies of the Qur’anic manuscript (Maṣāḥif), around 650–656 CE. These codices were based on a single consonantal script (Rasm) and were distributed to major regions of the Muslim world. Other personal written copies were withdrawn to ensure unity in the written text, while authentic modes of recitation (Qira’at) continued to be transmitted orally. The Qur’anic manuscript at this stage did not include diacritical marks or vowel signs, which were added later to assist reading and pronunciation. This standardization ensured unity of the written Qur’an while preserving the diversity of authentic recitations.”
The standardization of the Quran involves several critical aspects beyond just the choice of words. This process was essential to ensure a uniform text that could be widely accepted and recited by all Muslims and must align with the Quran as it was revealed for consistency.
The Uthmanic standardisation produced a unified written Qur’anic text (rasm) based on early Arabic orthography associated with the Quraysh dialect tradition. The original manuscripts did not include diacritical marks or vowel signs, which were added in later centuries to assist reading. This consonantal script allowed multiple authentic oral recitations (qirāʾāt) to be preserved within the same written framework through established transmission.

Here are the key components involved in this standardization:
Choice of Words: The selection of specific words was crucial, as variations in vocabulary could lead to different interpretations and meanings. The standardized text aimed to eliminate ambiguity and confusion that might arise from regional dialects or personal interpretations. While choice of words is a fundamental part of standardization, it encompasses orthography, vowelization, compilation efforts, recognition of recitation styles, contextual interpretation, and historical context.

Orthography: The way words were written, including spelling conventions, punctuation, and diacritical marks, played a significant role in standardization. This was particularly important for preserving the correct pronunciation and meaning of verses.

Vowelization: The introduction of vowels (harakat) was another critical aspect of standardization. Early Arabic script did not include vowels, which could lead to misreading or misunderstanding the text. By adding vowel markings, scholars aimed to preserve the intended pronunciation and meaning.

Compilation and Codification: The process involved gathering various recitations of the Quran that existed at the time into a single authoritative text. This compilation was undertaken during the caliphate of Uthman ibn Affan.

Recitation Styles (Qira’at): While standardizing the text itself, it was also necessary to recognize different recitation styles (Qira’at) that had developed over time. These styles reflect variations in pronunciation and intonation but must align with the standardized text for consistency.

Contextual Interpretation (Tafseer): Alongside standardizing the text, there was an emphasis on ensuring that interpretations (Tafseer) were consistent with the standardized version of the Quran. This helped maintain a unified understanding among Muslims regarding its teachings.

Historical Context: Understanding the historical context in which various verses were revealed also contributed to their proper interpretation within a standardized framework.

Development of Qira’at
The science of Qira’at developed as scholars sought to document and preserve the authentic modes of Qur’anic recitation transmitted from the time of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ. These recitations were not newly created, but were already present through continuous oral transmission. In the 10th century CE, the scholar Ibn Mujahid (Abū Bakr Aḥmad ibn Mūsā ibn al-ʿAbbās Ibn Mujāhid al-ʿAṭashī, d. 936 CE) played a key role in systematising the study of Qira’at in his work Kitāb al-Sabʿa fī al-Qirāʾāt, where he identified seven widely accepted canonical readings based on strict criteria. These criteria included conformity with the Uthmanic script, authentic chains of transmission (isnād), and correctness according to Arabic grammar.

The seven canonical qira’at
According to the Scholars Seven qira’at of ibn Mujahid are mutawatir (“a transmission which has independent chains of authorities so wide as to rule out the possibility of any error and on which there is consensus”).

There are also further three Qira’at, (sometimes known as “the three after the seven”), that provide additional variants. These three—named after Abu Jafar, Ya’qub and Khalaf—were added to the canonical seven centuries later by ibn al-Jazari (d.1429 CE) though they were popular since the time of the seven. They are mashhur (literally “famous”, “well-known”. “these are slightly less wide in their transmission, but still so wide as to make error highly unlikely”).

The three mashhur qira’at added to the seven are:

Calligraphy Styles Used in the Quran

The calligraphy styles used in the Quran have evolved over time, reflecting both artistic and functional developments. Below is a list of notable calligraphy styles, starting with Hijazi as the first style:

1. Hijazi Script (7th – 8th Century CE)
   Hijazi script is one of the earliest forms of Arabic script, developed in the Hejaz region (modern-day Saudi Arabia). It was commonly used during the time of early Islam and is characterized by its angular shapes and rightward slant. This script lacks diacritical marks and dots that distinguish letters, making it somewhat challenging to read.
2. Kufic Script (8th Century CE onwards)
   Kufic script emerged shortly after Hijazi and is known for its angularity and geometric forms. It became prominent during the Umayyad and Abbasid periods. Kufic manuscripts often include diacritics and decorative elements, making them visually striking.
3. Mashq Script (9th Century CE onwards)
   Mashq is a cursive style that developed later than both Hijazi and Kufic scripts. It features elongated letters and fluid lines, making it suitable for more artistic expressions in calligraphy.
4. Naskh Script (10th Century CE onwards)
   Naskh became widely used for writing texts due to its legibility and elegance. It features rounded letters with a more cursive flow compared to earlier scripts, making it popular for copying books, including the Quran.
5. Thuluth Script (11th Century CE onwards)
   Thuluth is characterized by its large size and elaborate curves, often used for titles or decorative purposes in manuscripts. It is frequently employed in architectural inscriptions as well.
6. Diwani Script (16th Century CE onwards)
   Diwani script emerged during the Ottoman Empire and is known for its intricate loops and flourishes. It was primarily used for official documents and correspondence due to its aesthetic appeal.
7. Ruq’ah Script (19th Century CE onwards)
   Ruq’ah is a simplified form of Naskh that became popular in everyday writing due to its speed and ease of use. While not typically used for Quranic texts, it represents an important development in Arabic calligraphy.

These styles illustrate the evolution of Arabic calligraphy from functional scripts to highly artistic forms that reflect cultural values throughout Islamic history.

Quranic Manuscripts and Their Dates

Birmingham Quran Manuscript

Date: Circa 568-645 CE
Description: This manuscript consists of two leaves written in Arabic Hijazi script and is held at the University of Birmingham. It has been radiocarbon dated to a period that potentially overlaps with the life of Prophet Muhammad.

Codex Parisino-petropolitanus
Date: Circa 650 CE
Description: This codex contains fragments of one of the oldest extant Quranic manuscripts, with portions preserved in various libraries including the Bibliothèque Nationale de France. It covers about 45% of the text of the Quran.

Sana’a Manuscript
Date: Circa 670 CE
Description: Discovered in Yemen, this manuscript features a palimpsest with two layers of text, where the upper text conforms to the Uthmanic standard while the lower text points to the student notes while learning the Quranic Text. Radiocarbon analysis dates it to before 671 CE. The top layer is the Quran and the below layer is student’s notes while learning the Quran, its a copy of the information written by the student which probably he required for his future reference. Previously palimpsest were used as a learning. A palimpsest is a manuscript page from which the original text has been scraped or washed off to make room for new writing. This practice was primarily due to the high cost and scarcity of writing materials, particularly parchment, which was made from animal skins. The term itself comes from the Greek word “Palimpsestos,” meaning “scraped again,” indicating the process involved in creating such documents.

Tübingen Fragment
Date: Circa 670 CE
Description: Housed at the University of Tübingen in Germany, this fragment is among the earliest known manuscripts of the Quran, dating back to the seventh century CE.

Hijazi Manuscripts
Date: Early forms from around 650 CE onwards.
Description: These manuscripts are characterized by their informal sloping Arabic script and represent some of the earliest forms of Quranic texts.