1/Theological Islamic Schools

Islamic theology and jurisprudence are structured around various schools of thought that interpret the Quran, Hadith, and other sources of Islamic knowledge. These schools can be broadly categorized into theological schools (ʿaqīdah) and jurisprudential schools (fiqh). Below is a detailed examination of these categories.

The theological schools in Islam focus on beliefs regarding the nature of God, the attributes of God, human free will, predestination, and other fundamental aspects of faith. The main theological schools include:

1. Mu’tazila:
   • Originating in the 8th century CE, the Mu’tazila school emphasized reason and rationality in understanding faith. They believed in the oneness (Tawhid) and justice (Al-‘adl) of God, human free will, and asserted that the Quran was created rather than co-eternal with God.
2. Ash’ari:
   • Founded by Abu al-Ḥasan al-Ashʿarī in the 10th century CE as a response to Mu’tazila thought. Ash’ari theology maintains that while reason has a role in understanding faith, ultimate truths are known through revelation. They argue for God’s omnipotence while also holding humans accountable for their actions through a concept called kasb (acquisition).
3. Māturīdī:
   • Established by Abu Mansur al-Māturīdī around the same time as Ash’ariism but differs slightly in its views on human reason’s ability to discern good from evil without divine revelation. Māturīdism is particularly influential among Hanafi Muslims.
4. Athari:
   • This school emphasizes strict adherence to textual sources without engaging in speculative theology or rational interpretation. Followers accept the apparent meanings of scripture without questioning their nature.
5. Murji’ah:
   • An early movement that argued that belief (iman) is separate from actions; thus, sin does not affect one’s status as a Muslim.
6. Jabriyah:
   • This school posits that humans have no free will and are entirely controlled by divine predestination.
7. Qadariyyah:
   • In contrast to Jabriyah, this school asserts that humans possess free will and are responsible for their actions.

2/Jurisprudential Schools (Fiqh)

Islamic jurisprudence is concerned with legal rulings derived from Islamic texts and traditions. The main Sunni schools of jurisprudence include:

1. Hanafi:
   • Founded by Abu Hanifa in the 8th century CE, it is characterized by its use of reasoning (ra’y) alongside textual evidence from the Quran and Hadith. It is one of the largest Sunni schools.
2. Maliki:
   • Established by Malik ibn Anas, this school relies heavily on practices from Medina as a source of law alongside Quranic injunctions.
3. Shafi’i:
   • Founded by Muhammad ibn Idrīs al-Shāfiʿī in the 8th century CE, this school emphasizes a systematic methodology for deriving legal rulings based on Quran, Hadith, consensus (ijma), and analogy (qiyas).
4. Hanbali:
   • Founded by Ahmad ibn Hanbal, this school is known for its strict adherence to textual sources with minimal reliance on reasoning or analogy11. It represents one of the more conservative approaches within Sunni Islam.
5. Ẓāhirī:
   • Founded by Dawūd al-Ẓāhirī in the 9th century CE, this school advocates for a literal interpretation of texts without resorting to analogical reasoning or personal opinion.

In Shia Islam:

1. Ja’fari:
   • Named after Ja’far al-Ṣādiq, this is the primary Shia school which includes two sub-divisions: Usuli (which allows ijtihad or independent reasoning) and Akhbari (which relies strictly on hadith).
2. Zaydi:
   • A branch within Shia Islam that follows Zayd ibn Ali; they share some similarities with Sunni jurisprudence but maintain distinct beliefs about leadership within Islam.
3. Ismāʿīlī:
   • This group diverged from Twelver Shia beliefs regarding succession after Ja’far al-Ṣādiq; they have their own interpretations and practices within Islamic law.

Conclusion

In summary, Islamic theological schools provide diverse perspectives on core beliefs about God and humanity’s relationship with Him while jurisprudential schools offer various methodologies for interpreting Islamic law based on foundational texts like the Quran and Hadith.

3/Turuq Schools-Sufism

Islamic Turuq (plural of Tariqa) refers to the various Sufi orders or paths within Islam that focus on spiritual development and the pursuit of a deeper connection with God. These orders are characterized by their unique practices, teachings, and methodologies aimed at achieving spiritual enlightenment and closeness to the Divine. The term “Tariqa” itself means “path” in Arabic, indicating a specific way or method of spiritual practice.

Overview of Sufi Orders

Sufism is often described as the mystical dimension of Islam, emphasizing inner purification and direct experience of God. Within Sufism, there are numerous Turuq or Tariqas, each with its own distinct practices, rituals, and philosophies. These orders typically trace their lineage back to a founding figure or saint who established the order’s teachings.

Major Sufi Orders

1. Qadiriyya: Founded by Abdul Qadir Gilani in the 12th century, this order emphasizes the importance of divine love and service to humanity. Its followers engage in dhikr (remembrance of God) and seek to cultivate virtues such as humility and compassion.
2. Naqshbandi: Established by Baha-ud-Din Naqshband in the 14th century, this order is known for its silent dhikr practices and emphasis on following the Sunnah (traditions) of Prophet Muhammad. It promotes a disciplined approach to spirituality.
3. Chishti: Originating in India during the 12th century, this order was founded by Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti. It is known for its inclusive approach and emphasis on love, tolerance, and social service.
4. Bektashi: This order has roots in Turkey and combines elements of Shia Islam with Sufi practices. Founded by Haji Bektash Veli in the 13th century, it emphasizes love for Ali (the cousin of Muhammad) and includes unique rituals that blend Islamic teachings with local customs.
5. Mevlevi: Known as the “Whirling Dervishes,” this order was founded by Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi in the 13th century. The Mevlevi practice a form of meditation through spinning as a means to achieve spiritual ecstasy.
6. Shadhili: Founded by Abu-l-Hassan ash-Shadhili in North Africa during the 13th century, this order emphasizes personal experience of God through love and devotion while maintaining adherence to Islamic law.

Characteristics of Tariqas

Each Tariqa has its own specific characteristics that define its practices:

• Spiritual Leadership: Most Turuq have a leader known as a Sheikh or Murshid who guides followers on their spiritual journey.
• Ritual Practices: Rituals may include recitations from the Quran, poetry (often inspired by Rumi), music (such as sama), dance (like whirling), and communal gatherings for dhikr.
• Ethical Teachings: Emphasis is placed on moral conduct, self-discipline, humility, compassion towards others, and service to humanity.
• Initiation Ceremonies: New members often undergo an initiation process where they pledge allegiance to their Sheikh and commit to following the path laid out by their Tariqa.

Conclusion

In summary, Islamic Turuq or Twariqa schools represent diverse paths within Sufism that guide practitioners toward spiritual growth through unique teachings and practices centered around love for God, ethical living, community service, and personal transformation. Each order contributes richly to Islamic spirituality while maintaining core beliefs rooted in Islamic tradition.

4/Islamic Movements

Islamic movements have evolved significantly over the centuries, shaped by various historical, social, and political contexts. Below is a detailed overview of key Islamic movements from their origins to the present day.

Early Islamic Movements (7th – 10th Century)

The foundation of Islamic movements began with the life and teachings of the Prophet Muhammad in the 7th century. After his death in 632 CE, several significant developments occurred:

1. Rashidun Caliphate (632-661 CE): The first four caliphs—Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali—led the Muslim community and expanded Islam beyond Arabia through military conquests and diplomatic efforts.
2. Umayyad Caliphate (661-750 CE): This dynasty marked a period of rapid expansion into North Africa and Spain. The Umayyads established Arabic as the administrative language and promoted trade across their vast empire.
3. Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258 CE): Following the Umayyads, the Abbasids shifted power to Baghdad, fostering a Golden Age characterized by advancements in science, philosophy, and culture. This era saw the establishment of institutions like Al-Azhar University in Cairo.

Medieval Islamic Movements (11th – 15th Century)

During this period, various reformist movements emerged:

1. Sufi Orders: Sufism became prominent as a mystical interpretation of Islam focusing on personal experience with God. Notable orders included the Qadiriyya and Naqshbandiyya.
2. Almoravid and Almohad Dynasties: These Berber dynasties sought to purify Islam in North Africa and Spain during the 11th to 13th centuries by enforcing strict adherence to Islamic law.
3. Crusades (1095-1291): The Crusades prompted responses from Muslim leaders like Saladin, who united various factions against external threats and recaptured Jerusalem in 1187.

Ottoman Empire (1299-1923)

The Ottoman Empire was one of the most influential Islamic empires:

1. Expansion: At its height, it controlled large parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa.
2. Cultural Flourishing: The Ottomans were known for their contributions to art, architecture (e.g., Hagia Sophia), and governance.
3. Decline: By the late 19th century, internal strife and external pressures led to its gradual decline.

Modern Islamic Movements (20th Century – Present)

In response to colonialism and modernization:

1. Pan-Islamism: Emerging in the late 19th century as a reaction against Western imperialism; figures like Jamal al-Din al-Afghani advocated for unity among Muslims globally.
2. Islamic Revivalism: In the mid-20th century, movements such as the Muslim Brotherhood founded by Hasan al-Banna in Egypt sought to return to traditional Islamic values while addressing modern societal issues.
3. Iranian Revolution (1979): A pivotal moment where Ayatollah Khomeini led a successful revolution that established an Islamic Republic based on Shia principles.
4. Salafism/Wahhabism: These movements advocate for a return to what they consider pure Islam based on early texts; they gained prominence particularly in Saudi Arabia.
5. Contemporary Movements:
   • Islamic State (ISIS): Emerged in Iraq and Syria around 2014 advocating for a caliphate based on extreme interpretations of Sunni Islam.
   • Social Justice Movements: Groups like Black Lives Matter have seen participation from Muslim communities advocating for civil rights within broader social justice frameworks.
   • Political Islam: Various parties across countries like Turkey’s AKP or Egypt’s Freedom and Justice Party seek political power through democratic means while promoting Islamic values.
6. Globalization Impact: The rise of digital communication has allowed for transnational networks among Muslims worldwide leading to new forms of activism such as online campaigns for social justice or humanitarian aid initiatives.

Conclusion

The landscape of Islamic movements is diverse and complex, reflecting a rich history that spans over fourteen centuries. From early expansions under caliphates to contemporary struggles for identity in a globalized world, these movements continue to shape not only Muslim societies but also global politics at large.