1/Science

This section deals with Science and the next section will deal with Islamic Contributions to Science.

Imagine the world is a giant puzzle. Scientists are like detectives who try to figure out how the puzzle pieces fit together. Science is the way we try to understand the world around us. Scientists use different tools and approaches to solve different types of puzzles. The main groups of science are like different teams of detectives, each focusing on a different kind of puzzle.

Formal sciences, natural sciences, and social sciences are the three main groups of science.

Formal Sciences

Formal sciences are like the rules of a game. They deal with things that we create in our minds, like numbers and logic. They don’t study things we can touch or see in the real world directly. Instead, they study abstract ideas and systems.

Formal Systems: These are sets of rules and symbols that we use to build logical structures. Think of them like the instructions for building with LEGOs. You have the bricks (symbols) and the instructions (rules) to create something new.
Logic: This is the science of reasoning. It helps us figure out if something is true or false, and how to make good arguments. It’s like a detective’s way of thinking, making sure all the clues fit together.
Mathematics: This is the science of numbers, shapes, and patterns. It helps us measure things, build things, and understand how things change. It’s like a universal language that helps us describe the world.
A priori: This means “from what comes before.” In formal sciences, we use a priori methods, which means we start with the rules and assumptions and then use logic to figure things out. We don’t need to do experiments in the real world to understand these concepts. For example, we can understand that 2 + 2 = 4 just by knowing the rules of math, not by measuring apples.

Natural Sciences

Natural sciences are like the detectives who study the real world around us. They try to understand how things work in nature, from tiny atoms to giant galaxies.

Natural Phenomena: These are things that happen in the natural world, like the weather, how plants grow, or how stars shine.
Cosmological: This is the study of the universe, including its origin, evolution, and structure. It’s like looking at the biggest picture of all.
Geological: This is the study of the Earth, including its rocks, landforms, and processes like earthquakes and volcanoes. It’s like studying the history of our planet.
Physical: This is the study of matter and energy, including things like motion, forces, light, and sound. It’s like understanding how things move and interact.
Chemical: This is the study of matter and its properties, and how substances change when they react with each other. It’s like understanding what things are made of and how they can be transformed.
Biological: This is the study of living things, including plants, animals, and tiny organisms. It’s like understanding how life works.
Physical Science: This branch includes physics and chemistry.
Life Science (or Biology): This branch includes the study of living organisms.
Empirical: This means “based on observation and experiment.” Natural scientists use empirical methods, which means they observe the world, do experiments, and collect data to learn about it. They test their ideas by seeing if they match what they observe in the real world.

Social Sciences

Social sciences are like the detectives who study people and how they interact with each other. They try to understand human behavior and how societies work.

Human Behaviour: This is what people do and why they do it.
Social: This refers to how people interact with each other in groups, communities, and societies.
Cultural: This refers to the beliefs, values, customs, and traditions of a group of people.

In summary, the branches of science are divided into three main groups: formal sciences (like math and logic), natural sciences (like physics, chemistry, and biology), and social sciences (like psychology and sociology). Each group uses different methods to study different aspects of the world.

2/Islamic Contributions to Science

Some of Islam’s contributions to the branches of science, broken down by scientific discipline.

Islam, from its inception, fostered a culture of learning and inquiry, significantly impacting the development of various scientific fields. The Quran and Hadith, the foundational texts of Islam, encouraged seeking knowledge and understanding the natural world. This emphasis on observation, experimentation, and intellectual pursuit laid the groundwork for significant advancements during the Islamic Golden Age (roughly 8th to 13th centuries).

Formal Sciences

Formal sciences, including mathematics and logic, were significantly advanced by Islamic scholars.

Mathematics: Islamic scholars engaged with the mathematical knowledge of that time making their own crucial contributions. They adopted and refined the numeral system, including the concept of zero, which revolutionized mathematical calculations and made algebra possible. Al-Khwarizmi, a Persian scholar, is considered the “father of algebra” for his systematic approach to solving linear and quadratic equations. His book, “Kitab al-Jabr wa al-Muqabala,” introduced algebra to Europe. Islamic mathematicians also made advancements in geometry, trigonometry, and the development of algorithms. The Quran and Hadith, while not directly mathematical texts, encouraged the study of mathematics for practical purposes, such as calculating inheritance and determining prayer times.
Logic: Islamic scholars engaged with Science . They preserved, translated and developed the Scientific knowledge of that time, making them accessible to a wider audience. They also developed their own logical systems and contributed to the study of philosophy and reasoning.

Natural Sciences

The natural sciences, encompassing physics, chemistry, biology, and astronomy, saw remarkable progress during the Islamic Golden Age.
Physics: Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) made ground-breaking contributions to optics, developing the scientific method and conducting experiments on light and vision. His “Book of Optics” revolutionized the understanding of
how the eye works and influenced the development of lenses and mirrors.
Chemistry: Islamic scholars made significant advancements in chemistry, developing laboratory techniques and equipment. They studied chemical reactions and processes, such as distillation, sublimation, and crystallization. Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber) is considered a pioneer in chemistry, and his works influenced the development of alchemy and early chemistry.
Biology: Islamic scholars made observations and classifications in botany and zoology. They studied plants, animals, and their habitats, contributing to the understanding of the natural world.
Astronomy: Islamic astronomers made significant contributions to the field. They built observatories, developed astronomical instruments, and made accurate observations of the stars, planets, and the movement of celestial bodies. They corrected and refined the Ptolemaic model of the universe and contributed to the development of calendars and navigation. The Quran mentions celestial bodies and encourages reflection on their creation, which spurred interest in astronomy.

Social Sciences

The social sciences, including history, sociology, and political science, also benefited from Islamic scholarship.

History: Islamic scholars developed sophisticated methods of historical writing, including the use of primary sources, critical analysis, and the establishment of timelines. They documented the history of the Islamic world and other civilizations.
Sociology: Ibn Khaldun, a 14th-century scholar, is considered a pioneer in sociology. His “Muqaddimah” (Introduction to History) explored social structures, the rise and fall of civilizations, and the dynamics of social change.
Political Science: Islamic scholars discussed political philosophy, governance, and law. They developed concepts of justice, ethics, and the role of the state.

In summary, Islam’s emphasis on knowledge and inquiry, as reflected in the Quran and Hadith, fostered a vibrant intellectual environment that led to significant contributions across various scientific disciplines. Islamic scholars preserved, translated, and expanded upon the knowledge of earlier civilizations, making ground-breaking advancements in mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, astronomy, history, sociology, and political science.

TIMELINE-Islamic Scholars and Their Contributions in Science

Early Islamic Golden Age (8th – 10th Centuries)

The early period of Islamic scholarship, often referred to as the Islamic Golden Age, saw the establishment of institutions like the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, which facilitated the translation of numerous scientific and philosophical texts into Arabic. This era was characterized by a strong emphasis on empirical observation and experimentation.

Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī (died 777 CE): An 8th-century Muslim mathematician and astronomer at the Abbasid court. He composed various astronomical writings, including works on the astrolabe, armillary spheres, and the calendar.

Muhammad ibn Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī (died 796 or 806 CE): Son of Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī, he was a philosopher, mathematician, and astronomer. He is credited with building the first astrolabe in the Islamic world and, along with his father and Yaʿqūb ibn Ṭāriq, helped translate the Indian astronomical text Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta into Arabic as Az-Zīj ‛alā Sinī al-‛Arab, which was instrumental in transmitting Hindu numerals to the Islamic world..

Al-Khwarizmi (c. 780–850 CE): A Persian mathematician, he is often regarded as the “father of algebra”. His seminal work, Kitab al-Jabr Wa l-Mugabala (from which the word “algebra” is derived), laid the foundation for modern algebra by presenting the first systematic solution of linear and quadratic equations.. He was also instrumental in the adoption of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system in the Western world, and the word “algorithm” is derived from his name “Al-khawarism”. He worked on mechanical devices like the astrolabe and sundial, and oversaw a project to determine the Earth’s circumference.

Al-Jahiz (776–869 CE): From Basra, he wrote the seven-volume Book of Animals, which included descriptions of over 350 animal varieties.

Al-Kindi (c. 801–873 CE): Known as “the philosopher of the Arabs,” he oversaw the translation of Greek scientific and philosophical texts into Arabic at the House of Wisdom.. He made significant contributions to various fields, including optics, medicine, mathematics, and cryptography. He pioneered methods of breaking ciphers, developed a scale to quantify the potency of medication, and was the first to isolate ethanol as a pure compound. His “A Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages” includes the first description of the method of frequency analysis.

Thabit ibn Qurra (c. 826–901 CE): A mathematician and astronomer who studied at Baghdad’s House of Wisdom. He discovered a theorem that enables pairs of amicable numbers to be found.. He also described the first occlusive treatment for amblyopia (lazy eye).

Abbas ibn Firnas (c. 810–887 CE): A polymath known for his work on a planetarium and artificial crystals. He is credited with the earliest recorded attempt at controlled flight in 875 CE, using a glider. He also developed lenses for vision improvement and a process for manufacturing colourless glass.

Al-Razi (c. 865–925 CE): A Persian polymath, he was one of the greatest physicians and alchemists of his time. He wrote extensively on chemistry, including descriptions of alkali, caustic soda, soap, and glycerine. In medicine, he identified smallpox and measles, distinguishing them from each other, and challenged classical Greek medical theories. He also wrote a 23-volume compendium of medical knowledge and advocated for patients not being told their real condition to avoid affecting the healing process. He was the first to write a book on paediatric diseases and discuss neuropsychiatric conditions.

Al-Battani (c. 858–929 CE): An Arab astronomer who made significant contributions to astronomy, including accurately determining the length of the solar year and refining values for the length of a year to 365 days, 5 hours, 46 minutes, 24 seconds. He used trigonometric methods for his calculations, an important advancement, and his astronomical tables influenced later scientists like Copernicus.

Al-Dinawari (815–896 CE): Popularized botany in the Islamic world with his six-volume Kitab al-Nabat (Book of Plants). He described the phases of plant growth and the production of flowers and fruit, and his work is considered a landmark in Islamic botany.

Al-Uqlidisi (fl. 10th century): Modified arithmetic methods for the Indian numeral system to make it possible for pen and paper use, which previously required a dust board.

Middle Islamic Golden Age (11th – 13th Centuries)

This period saw further specialization and refinement of scientific disciplines, with notable advancements in optics, medicine, and mechanical engineering.

Al-Biruni (c. 973–1048 CE): A Persian polymath who made significant contributions to mathematics, astronomy, physics, and medicine. He measured the radius of the Earth using a new method, achieving remarkable accuracy. He also contributed to the introduction of the experimental scientific method to mechanics, unifying statics and dynamics, and combining hydrostatics with dynamics to create hydrodynamics. He hypothesized that India was once covered by the Indian Ocean and stated that light has a finite speed, much faster than sound.

Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) (c. 965–1040 CE): Often called the “father of optics” and a pioneer of the scientific method. His Book of Optics rejected Greek ideas about vision, proposing that vision occurs by light rays entering the eye, and emphasized the importance of scepticism and systematic experimentation. He invented the camera obscura and the magnifying glass, and his work laid the foundation for modern optical science. He also discussed the theory of attraction between masses, foreshadowing concepts of gravity and inertia.

Avicenna (Ibn Sina) (c. 980–1037 CE): A Persian polymath and physician, widely regarded as one of the greatest minds of his time. His major medical textbook, The Canon of Medicine, was a standard reference in both the Islamic world and Europe for centuries. It introduced systematic experimentation and quantification in physiology, identified contagious diseases, and outlined public health measures. He also contributed to mathematical techniques, physics (suggesting light has a finite speed), and philosophy. His Book of Healing is an encyclopaedia combining science and philosophy, introducing psychological reasons for illnesses.

Al-Zarqali (1028–1087 CE): Developed a more accurate astrolabe and discovered that the Sun’s apogee moves slowly relative to the fixed stars. He published the Almanac of Azarqueil, the first almanac, which was later translated and adapted in Europe.

Omar Khayyam (c. 1048–1131 CE): A Persian mathematician and poet. He gave a complete classification of cubic equations with geometric solutions and extracted roots using the decimal system. He also calculated the length of the year to within 5 decimal places.

Al-Zahrawi (Albucasis) (c. 936–1013 CE): A surgeon from Al-Andalus, often referred to as the “Father of Modern Surgery”. His 30-volume medical encyclopaedia, Al-Tasrif, remained a standard textbook for centuries and described over 200 surgical instruments, many of which he invented. He pioneered the preparation of medicines by sublimation and distillation, and introduced techniques like using dissolving catgut for sutures.

Al-Idrisi (c. 1100–1165 CE): Known for drawing some of the most advanced ancient world maps and writing the Tabula Rogeriana, a comprehensive geographic study. He created the Tabula Rogeriana for King Roger II of Sicily. This map, considered one of the most advanced medieval world maps, incorporated knowledge from Africa, the Indian Ocean, and the Far East, gathered by Islamic merchants and explorers, along with classical geographical information. Al-Idrisi’s work, which included a silver planisphere and a book with 70 sectional maps, was highly accurate for its time and remained authoritative for three centuries.

Al-Samawal (fl. 12th century): An important member of al-Karaji’s school of algebra, he defined algebra as being concerned with “operating on unknowns using all the arithmetical tools, in the same way as the arithmetician operates on the known”.

Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi (c. 1135–1213 CE): Wrote a treatise on cubic equations that represents an essential contribution to algebraic geometry. He also developed the concept of a function, pioneering functional algebra.

Ibn Rushd (Averroes) (c. 1126–1198 CE): A polymath from Spain who had a great impact on Christian Europe through his commentaries on Aristotle’s works. He contributed to medicine with his book Colliget and developed the notion that bodies have an inherent resistance to motion, an idea later referred to as “inertia” by Johannes Kepler. He was also the first to define and measure force as “the rate at which work is done in changing the kinetic condition of a material body”.

Ibn al-Nafis (c. 1213–1288 CE): A Damascene physician and anatomist. He is credited with the discovery of the pulmonary and coronary circulation of blood, correcting earlier erroneous views by Galen and Avicenna. He emphasized the rigor of verification by measurement, observation, and experiment. He also wrote Theologus Autodidactus, considered the first science fiction novel, which contained the earliest medical description of metabolism.

Ismail al-Jazari (c. 1136–1206 CE): A mechanical engineer who described 100 mechanical devices in his Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices, including trick vessels and instructions for their construction. He is credited with the invention of the crankshaft and the crank-slider mechanism, which are central to modern machinery. He also invented various water clocks, automated devices, and a programmable humanoid robot band.

Later Islamic Period and Modern Contributions (14th Century – Present)

While the intensity of scientific output shifted, Muslim scholars continued to make significant contributions, and in modern times, individuals of Muslim heritage have achieved global recognition in science.

Al-Kashi (c. 1380–1429 CE): A Persian mathematician and astronomer. He contributed significantly to the development of decimal fractions and gave an algorithm for calculating nth roots. He calculated
π correctly to 17 significant figures [2]. He also invented an analogue computer instrument for planetary conjunctions and a mechanical planetary computer.

Ibn Khaldun (c. 1332–1406 CE): An Arab historiographer and historian. His Muqaddimah introduced concepts in social philosophy, economics, and even contributed to biology and chemistry.

Muhammad Baqir Yazdi (fl. 17th century): A Persian mathematician who discovered the pair of amicable numbers 9,363,584 and 9,437,056, for which he is jointly credited with Descartes.

Abdus Salam (1926–1996 CE): A Pakistani theoretical physicist who, along with Sheldon Glashow and Steven Weinberg, received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1979 for their contributions to the electroweak unification theory . He was the first Muslim to win a Nobel Prize in science.

Ahmed Zewail (1946–2016 CE): An Egyptian-American chemist who won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1999 for his pioneering work in femtochemistry, the study of chemical reactions on ultrafast timescales.

Rachid Yazami (born 1953 CE): A Moroccan scientist and engineer known for his invention of the graphite anode for lithium-ion batteries. He was the first Arab engineer to win the Draper Prize, considered the Nobel in engineering.

Moungi Bawendi (born 1961 CE): A French-Tunisian-American chemist who, along with Louis Brus and Aleksey Ekimov, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2023 for the discovery and synthesis of quantum dots

Lotfi A. Zadeh (1921–2017 CE): An Azerbaijani-American computer scientist and mathematician, renowned for proposing fuzzy set theory.

Mehran Kardar (born 1957 CE): An Iranian-American theoretical physicist, known for the introduction of the Kardar–Parisi–Zhang (KPZ) equation.

Alireza Mashaghi (born 1978 CE): An Iranian-Dutch scientist, recognized for his work on the development of Circuit topology.

Hulusi Behçet (1889–1948 CE): A Turkish dermatologist and scientist, known for the first description of Behçet’s disease.